Grasshoppers are considered an intermittent problem in Oklahoma and North Texas pastures. However, when they are present in large numbers, the damage can be severe. Before grasshoppers develop into a problem, producers need to determine a treatment threshold and plan of action for their operations. To set the threshold, consider the developmental stages of the grasshoppers and crop, value of the crop, weather conditions and cost of control.
Although there are many grasshopper species, only five cause most of the damage in our area. These are the differential, migratory, two-striped, red-legged and Packard grasshoppers. Their life cycles consist of the egg stage (where most over-winter), five to six instar stages and the adult stage.
During late summer and fall, eggs are deposited up to 2 inches below the soil surface in fallow fields, ditches, fencerows and other weedy areas. The eggs hatch in spring or early summer, depending on soil temperature. The nymphs will feed on tender weeds and grasses near the hatching sites until they reach adulthood in 40 to 60 days, when most develop wings and become highly mobile.
Mating and egg laying activity begins within three weeks of reaching adulthood. The adults may live up to two more months, depending on the weather, with daily dry matter consumption of 30 percent to 250 percent of their body weight. A general rule of thumb is that 30 pounds of grasshoppers is equivalent to a 600-pound steer in terms of dry matter consumption.
Determining the economic threshold for grasshopper treatment is almost as much art as science. The potential for an economic grasshopper infestation begins with the number of eggs laid the previous fall. Optimum conditions for emergence and survival of the nymphs are warm, dry conditions with sparse vegetation that allow adequate soil warming. Once the hatch begins, weather conditions and the amount of available forage are the primary factors in determining population development.
If drought or overgrazed conditions are prevalent, then forage production is decreased, and competition for available forage will reduce the number of grasshoppers that can be tolerated. A well-managed, healthy crop can usually tolerate significantly higher numbers. Infestation is usually measured in average number of grasshoppers per square yard in both field margins and interiors. Published treatment thresholds range from three to 40 per square yard depending on crop, utilization requirements and where the measurements were taken.
Grasshoppers can be suppressed by both chemical means and natural mortality. Birds, other animals and insects utilize large numbers of grasshoppers as an important food source. The naturally occurring fungus Entomophthora grylli can also cause high mortality. Grasshoppers infected with this fungus will grasp the top of a plant, extend their back legs and die in this position. Fungal spores then develop in their bodies, become airborne and infect other grasshoppers.
The fungus is most effective in warm, humid conditions. Always scout for grasshoppers in this condition prior to making a chemical application. Early chemical control may be beneficial to hatching sites such as field borders and fencerows during the nymph stages. Later in the season, if the treatment threshold is met, broadcast applications or RAAT (reduced agent and area treatment) programs may be required. RAAT is an integrated pest management based program with a reduced pesticide rate applied by alternating treated swaths with untreated swaths. Due to the mobility of adult grasshoppers, effective late-season chemical control is often difficult to obtain.
An excellent source of information on grasshoppers, including decision-making aids for identification, threshold development and treatment options is at http://www.sidney.ars.usda.gov/grasshopper/Handbook/TOC.htm.
At the time of this writing, we have been experiencing the warm, dry conditions that are ideal for grasshopper development. We can only hope that by the time you read this, the rains have come, everything is green and lush and grasshoppers won't develop into a severe problem. You can find this and past articles on the web at http://www.mycountrytractor.com/ for your reference. Extension proserve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating.
Mycountrytractor.com is the destination for those looking for community info. Mycountrytractor is involved with county events and child involvement to help support local 4-H and FFA events. We have wonderful Agriculture information for our visitors for all your farming and ranching needs
Tuesday, July 20, 2010
Tuesday, July 13, 2010
Chute n the Bull
Water is the most important nutrient for livestock. Water is needed for all metabolic processes essential for life, including growth and reproduction. The amount of water animals consume is affected by many physiological and environmental factors, one of which is the quality of available water. Many producers rely on ponds to provide water for livestock, but there is little data available on pond water quality in the Southern Great Plains. Therefore, a water quality survey was conducted by the Noble Foundation to determine the effects of pond location and watershed grazing management on pond water quality in southern Oklahoma and north-central Texas.
Water samples were collected and analyzed from 83 farm ponds during the summer of 2009. Additional data were collected for each pond to determine if water quality was affected by grazing management, cattle access or location of the pond.
We found that grazing management (continuous versus rotational grazing) did not affect any of the 22 water quality parameters we measured. However, watersheds of most of the ponds we sampled were properly grazed. Overgrazing that results in poor forage stands within a watershed could contribute to erosion and nutrient transport, resulting in decreased water quality.
We also found that intensity of cattle access to the pond did not affect most measured parameters. However, cattle access did affect the level of suspended solids in pond water. Ponds that had no cattle access had significantly fewer suspended solids compared to ponds with unlimited cattle access. High levels of suspended solids have been shown to decrease water intake in cattle. This problem can be avoided by fencing off ponds to provide limited access points or using gravity-fed water troughs. Water troughs that are gravity-fed from ponds reduce the time cattle spend in ponds, which in turn can decrease fecal contamination and prevent cattle from stirring up sediments.
Our data showed that geographic location did affect water quality, but no ponds were determined to be unacceptable for use as livestock water. From south to north within our sampling area, sodium concentrations decreased, while magnesium and nitrate concentrations increased. In addition, sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium and sulfur concentrations decreased from west to east. These findings could simply be a result of different soil types and rainfall patterns across the sampling area.
The ponds sampled were representative of a wide range of pond and watershed management systems in the south-central U.S., and most water quality parameters were within the acceptable range for livestock drinking water. However, testing your livestock water sources is the only way to know if they are acceptable for livestock use. All water sources should be tested annually at the beginning of summer to identify potential problems and assess the quality of each source.
Livestock should be provided with free-choice access to clean, quality water at all times. Contact a livestock consultant at the Noble Foundation or your local extension agent for additional information about livestock water testing. You can find this and past articles on the web at http://www.mycountrytractor.com/ for your reference. Extension programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating .
Water samples were collected and analyzed from 83 farm ponds during the summer of 2009. Additional data were collected for each pond to determine if water quality was affected by grazing management, cattle access or location of the pond.
We found that grazing management (continuous versus rotational grazing) did not affect any of the 22 water quality parameters we measured. However, watersheds of most of the ponds we sampled were properly grazed. Overgrazing that results in poor forage stands within a watershed could contribute to erosion and nutrient transport, resulting in decreased water quality.
We also found that intensity of cattle access to the pond did not affect most measured parameters. However, cattle access did affect the level of suspended solids in pond water. Ponds that had no cattle access had significantly fewer suspended solids compared to ponds with unlimited cattle access. High levels of suspended solids have been shown to decrease water intake in cattle. This problem can be avoided by fencing off ponds to provide limited access points or using gravity-fed water troughs. Water troughs that are gravity-fed from ponds reduce the time cattle spend in ponds, which in turn can decrease fecal contamination and prevent cattle from stirring up sediments.
Our data showed that geographic location did affect water quality, but no ponds were determined to be unacceptable for use as livestock water. From south to north within our sampling area, sodium concentrations decreased, while magnesium and nitrate concentrations increased. In addition, sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium and sulfur concentrations decreased from west to east. These findings could simply be a result of different soil types and rainfall patterns across the sampling area.
The ponds sampled were representative of a wide range of pond and watershed management systems in the south-central U.S., and most water quality parameters were within the acceptable range for livestock drinking water. However, testing your livestock water sources is the only way to know if they are acceptable for livestock use. All water sources should be tested annually at the beginning of summer to identify potential problems and assess the quality of each source.
Livestock should be provided with free-choice access to clean, quality water at all times. Contact a livestock consultant at the Noble Foundation or your local extension agent for additional information about livestock water testing. You can find this and past articles on the web at http://www.mycountrytractor.com/ for your reference. Extension programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating .
Chute N The Bull
The cattle industry has made many advances over the last few decades.
Fewer cattle are producing more pounds of beef that is arguably of
better quality. There are many reasons, including improved genetics,
advances in pharmaceuticals, implementation of Beef Quality Assurance
(BQA) practices, improved management practices and other factors.
Challenges facing the cattle industry are the same as most agriculture
sectors - costs of production are increasing more rapidly than the
prices for the product, market uncertainty lies ahead and the weather is
unpredictable. How can a cow-calf producer minimize risks while
increasing the potential of positive margins for the enterprise?
To start, develop an operational program that complements your resources
and goals, incorporates the industry's best management practices,
establishes mechanisms to monitor and measure the critical production
and economic variables, minimizes expenses and strategically markets the
product. Each of these steps must be applied consistently and be
repeatable. In short, manage the operation as a business, regardless of
its size or scale. There are many successful business models in the
cattle industry. Many producers, however, are reluctant to adopt one for
various reasons: they may think that they are not large enough,
implementation is not a priority, there's not enough available time, or
there is uncertainty about what to do or how to do it. Granted, larger
operations have more options, but adopting a specific program also
brings benefits to smaller producers.
If you are a cattle producer and would like a simple cattle program that
can be planned and scheduled on a calendar basis, want to utilize the
most proven management practices in the industry, are willing to follow
a designed production protocol, are willing to keep and use meaningful
production and financial records, and desire to participate in a
producer organization dedicated to best practices, then you should
investigate the Integrity Beef program.
Integrity Beef is a terminal beef cattle program. It assists producers
in the production and marketing of ranch-raised stocker/feeder cattle
that are preconditioned and have superior growth potential. The
Integrity Beef program is directed by participating producers with
guidance from the Noble Foundation Agricultural Division. Progressive
producers formed the Integrity Beef Alliance in 2009 after several years
of the program's development. Producers and the Noble Foundation set out
to distinguish Integrity Beef by requiring standards that are above and
beyond most others. A program protocol was established through which
participating producers uniformly administer, document and report all
practices. The protocol is designed to simplify management decisions and
increase the marketability of calves through the production of uniform
and age- and source-verified cattle. Integrity Beef has advanced to the
point to which producers' calves are now commingled and marketed in
larger, uniform lots. Commingling was successfully implemented in the
Decembers of 2008 and 2009 at sanctioned Integrity Beef calf sales. This
marketing strategy works very well for small and medium producers who
cannot market truckload lots of calves.
The Integrity Beef protocol is a set of standards for a spring calving
cow-calf program and includes requirements that participants agree to as
the basis for program inclusion. Following are the basics of the
protocol.
Calves must:
• be sired by Integrity Beef-accepted bulls (see bull requirements)
• have permanent individual tag or brand identification
• be age- and source-verified as Integrity Beef program calves through
Micro Beef Technology
• be from groups with recorded first and last birth dates of the calf
crop (or individual birth dates recorded)
• be castrated and dehorned
• have individually recorded weaning weights
• be preconditioned a minimum of 45 days
• be trained to eat from a bunk and drink from a water trough
• have two doses of clostridial (one in spring), one dose of
anthelmintic and two doses of respiratory vaccine (MLV for IBR, BRSV,
PI3, BVD Types 1 and 2) given at or around weaning
• test negative for PI-BVD (persistently infected-bovine viral diarrhea)
at year one.
Cows must:
• have a breed composition of at least 50 percent British breeds (Angus,
Red Angus or Hereford)
• be no more than three-eighths Brahman influence with no Longhorn,
Corriente or dairy breed influence
• have permanent identification
• be palpated annually for pregnancy
• have annual vaccinations against respiratory disease, vibriosis and
leptospirosis (prior to the breeding season)
• have anthelmintic applied in the fall and spring
• test negative for PI-BVD upon purchase or entry into the program, and
calves from replacement females must also test PI-BVD negative.
Bulls must:
• be Angus or Charolais with EPDs in the top 20 percent of their
respective breed for weaning weight and yearling weight
• have annual vaccinations against respiratory disease, vibriosis and
leptospirosis (prior to the breeding season)
• have anthelmintic applied in the fall and spring
• have permanent identification
• have a breeding soundness exam 30-90 days prior to the breeding season
• have a 90-day breeding season maximum for a late winter/early spring
calving season
• test negative for PI-BVD upon purchase or entry into the program.
Additional requirements include:
• participants to be active Noble Foundation cooperators
• participating operations to have premise identification numbers
• operational managers to have BQA certification
• participants to annually provide preconditioning expenses to the Noble
Foundation for summary reporting
• participants to provide production, performance and economic data to
the Noble Foundation for operational annual reports.The primary costs associated with the Integrity Beef program are the age
and source verification fees, the Alliance enrollment fee and the PI-BVD
testing of new animals before they are added to the herd. Age and source
verification carries a base fee of $4 per calf with audit fees not
included. Integrity Beef Alliance enrollment is an annual $1 per calf
fee to participate in the program. Fees are assessed and collected by
the Alliance and are used as the membership designates for such things
as promotions, field trips and research.
PI-BVD testing costs about $4 and is conducted by testing services such
as Cattle Stats LLC and the Oklahoma Animal Disease and Diagnostic
Laboratory at Oklahoma State University. The producer is responsible for
contacting a service for PI-BVD testing and is responsible for
associated expenses.
As participants in Integrity Beef, producers receive ongoing services
from the Noble Foundation consultation program. This service includes
assessments of land and livestock resources, and reports providing
annual production and economic summaries of the operation. Members who
maintain annual reporting requirements also receive annual summary
statistics (individual production information remains confidential) from
the overall program.
When Integrity Beef cattle have been marketed in large lot sizes, calves
have demonstrated the ability to top the market within each class
represented on any particular sale day. On Dec. 2, 2009, Integrity Beef
producers marketed approximately 1,200 head of commingled calves for a
$5.72 per hundredweight premium over all other cattle marketed that day.
Similar premiums are consistently reported from participating producers
who retained ownership to heavier weights and/or marketed their cattle
independently.
The largest benefit from participation in the Integrity Beef program is
the advancement of operational objectives through a proven cow-calf
business model. The system can be confidently planned and administered
backed by the knowledge that other producers are producing a more
uniform and marketable product under the protocol. Additionally, the
Noble Foundation continues to support this program through consultation
and education. One Integrity Beef producer recently explained his
reasons for participation, "The program has me doing all the right
things because it is the right thing to do for the beef industry.
Following Integrity Beef standards, I know what to do, when to do it and
can now run my operation as a business."
The Integrity Beef program requires discipline, and it is not for
everyone. If, however, you are ready to take your cow-calf operation to
the next level, contact Hugh Aljoe, consultation program manager and
acting executive director of the Integrity Beef Alliance at 580-223-5810
or speak to a Noble Foundation agricultural consultant for more
information. You can find this and past articles on the web at
http://www.mycountrytractor.com/ for your reference. Extension
programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race,
color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M
University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County
Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating serve of all ages regardless
of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or
national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating
Thank you,
Tommy Neyland
County Extension Agent
Texas Agrilife Extension Service
P.O. Box 188
Centerville, Texas 75833
903.536.2531 phone
903.536.3804 fax
Fewer cattle are producing more pounds of beef that is arguably of
better quality. There are many reasons, including improved genetics,
advances in pharmaceuticals, implementation of Beef Quality Assurance
(BQA) practices, improved management practices and other factors.
Challenges facing the cattle industry are the same as most agriculture
sectors - costs of production are increasing more rapidly than the
prices for the product, market uncertainty lies ahead and the weather is
unpredictable. How can a cow-calf producer minimize risks while
increasing the potential of positive margins for the enterprise?
To start, develop an operational program that complements your resources
and goals, incorporates the industry's best management practices,
establishes mechanisms to monitor and measure the critical production
and economic variables, minimizes expenses and strategically markets the
product. Each of these steps must be applied consistently and be
repeatable. In short, manage the operation as a business, regardless of
its size or scale. There are many successful business models in the
cattle industry. Many producers, however, are reluctant to adopt one for
various reasons: they may think that they are not large enough,
implementation is not a priority, there's not enough available time, or
there is uncertainty about what to do or how to do it. Granted, larger
operations have more options, but adopting a specific program also
brings benefits to smaller producers.
If you are a cattle producer and would like a simple cattle program that
can be planned and scheduled on a calendar basis, want to utilize the
most proven management practices in the industry, are willing to follow
a designed production protocol, are willing to keep and use meaningful
production and financial records, and desire to participate in a
producer organization dedicated to best practices, then you should
investigate the Integrity Beef program.
Integrity Beef is a terminal beef cattle program. It assists producers
in the production and marketing of ranch-raised stocker/feeder cattle
that are preconditioned and have superior growth potential. The
Integrity Beef program is directed by participating producers with
guidance from the Noble Foundation Agricultural Division. Progressive
producers formed the Integrity Beef Alliance in 2009 after several years
of the program's development. Producers and the Noble Foundation set out
to distinguish Integrity Beef by requiring standards that are above and
beyond most others. A program protocol was established through which
participating producers uniformly administer, document and report all
practices. The protocol is designed to simplify management decisions and
increase the marketability of calves through the production of uniform
and age- and source-verified cattle. Integrity Beef has advanced to the
point to which producers' calves are now commingled and marketed in
larger, uniform lots. Commingling was successfully implemented in the
Decembers of 2008 and 2009 at sanctioned Integrity Beef calf sales. This
marketing strategy works very well for small and medium producers who
cannot market truckload lots of calves.
The Integrity Beef protocol is a set of standards for a spring calving
cow-calf program and includes requirements that participants agree to as
the basis for program inclusion. Following are the basics of the
protocol.
Calves must:
• be sired by Integrity Beef-accepted bulls (see bull requirements)
• have permanent individual tag or brand identification
• be age- and source-verified as Integrity Beef program calves through
Micro Beef Technology
• be from groups with recorded first and last birth dates of the calf
crop (or individual birth dates recorded)
• be castrated and dehorned
• have individually recorded weaning weights
• be preconditioned a minimum of 45 days
• be trained to eat from a bunk and drink from a water trough
• have two doses of clostridial (one in spring), one dose of
anthelmintic and two doses of respiratory vaccine (MLV for IBR, BRSV,
PI3, BVD Types 1 and 2) given at or around weaning
• test negative for PI-BVD (persistently infected-bovine viral diarrhea)
at year one.
Cows must:
• have a breed composition of at least 50 percent British breeds (Angus,
Red Angus or Hereford)
• be no more than three-eighths Brahman influence with no Longhorn,
Corriente or dairy breed influence
• have permanent identification
• be palpated annually for pregnancy
• have annual vaccinations against respiratory disease, vibriosis and
leptospirosis (prior to the breeding season)
• have anthelmintic applied in the fall and spring
• test negative for PI-BVD upon purchase or entry into the program, and
calves from replacement females must also test PI-BVD negative.
Bulls must:
• be Angus or Charolais with EPDs in the top 20 percent of their
respective breed for weaning weight and yearling weight
• have annual vaccinations against respiratory disease, vibriosis and
leptospirosis (prior to the breeding season)
• have anthelmintic applied in the fall and spring
• have permanent identification
• have a breeding soundness exam 30-90 days prior to the breeding season
• have a 90-day breeding season maximum for a late winter/early spring
calving season
• test negative for PI-BVD upon purchase or entry into the program.
Additional requirements include:
• participants to be active Noble Foundation cooperators
• participating operations to have premise identification numbers
• operational managers to have BQA certification
• participants to annually provide preconditioning expenses to the Noble
Foundation for summary reporting
• participants to provide production, performance and economic data to
the Noble Foundation for operational annual reports.The primary costs associated with the Integrity Beef program are the age
and source verification fees, the Alliance enrollment fee and the PI-BVD
testing of new animals before they are added to the herd. Age and source
verification carries a base fee of $4 per calf with audit fees not
included. Integrity Beef Alliance enrollment is an annual $1 per calf
fee to participate in the program. Fees are assessed and collected by
the Alliance and are used as the membership designates for such things
as promotions, field trips and research.
PI-BVD testing costs about $4 and is conducted by testing services such
as Cattle Stats LLC and the Oklahoma Animal Disease and Diagnostic
Laboratory at Oklahoma State University. The producer is responsible for
contacting a service for PI-BVD testing and is responsible for
associated expenses.
As participants in Integrity Beef, producers receive ongoing services
from the Noble Foundation consultation program. This service includes
assessments of land and livestock resources, and reports providing
annual production and economic summaries of the operation. Members who
maintain annual reporting requirements also receive annual summary
statistics (individual production information remains confidential) from
the overall program.
When Integrity Beef cattle have been marketed in large lot sizes, calves
have demonstrated the ability to top the market within each class
represented on any particular sale day. On Dec. 2, 2009, Integrity Beef
producers marketed approximately 1,200 head of commingled calves for a
$5.72 per hundredweight premium over all other cattle marketed that day.
Similar premiums are consistently reported from participating producers
who retained ownership to heavier weights and/or marketed their cattle
independently.
The largest benefit from participation in the Integrity Beef program is
the advancement of operational objectives through a proven cow-calf
business model. The system can be confidently planned and administered
backed by the knowledge that other producers are producing a more
uniform and marketable product under the protocol. Additionally, the
Noble Foundation continues to support this program through consultation
and education. One Integrity Beef producer recently explained his
reasons for participation, "The program has me doing all the right
things because it is the right thing to do for the beef industry.
Following Integrity Beef standards, I know what to do, when to do it and
can now run my operation as a business."
The Integrity Beef program requires discipline, and it is not for
everyone. If, however, you are ready to take your cow-calf operation to
the next level, contact Hugh Aljoe, consultation program manager and
acting executive director of the Integrity Beef Alliance at 580-223-5810
or speak to a Noble Foundation agricultural consultant for more
information. You can find this and past articles on the web at
http://www.mycountrytractor.com/ for your reference. Extension
programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race,
color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M
University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County
Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating serve of all ages regardless
of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or
national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating
Thank you,
Tommy Neyland
County Extension Agent
Texas Agrilife Extension Service
P.O. Box 188
Centerville, Texas 75833
903.536.2531 phone
903.536.3804 fax
Monday, June 28, 2010
Chute N The Bull 6/27/10
Heat stress can greatly impact cattle producers through decreased milk
production and subsequent calf growth, decreased reproductive
performance in cows and bulls, and decreased stocker and feeder
performance. It has been estimated that heat-related events in the
Midwest have cost the cattle industry over $75 million in the past 10
years. As summer approaches, make preparations to reduce the risk of
heat stress in your cattle.
The ideal temperature range for beef cattle is between 41° F and 77° F.
When temperatures exceed this, cattle are at risk of heat stress. Many
environmental factors affect the potential for heat stress, including
relative humidity, wind speed, solar radiation, ground cover, access to
water, diet, shade and nighttime temperatures. In addition, individual
animal characteristics can contribute to heat stress. These include hide
color, breed, health, adaptation, hair coat length and disposition. When
a combination of these factors and ambient temperature cause an animal's
heat load to exceed its ability to dissipate that heat, heat stress
occurs.
Identifying Heat Stress
When heat stressed, cattle exhibit many physical and behavioral changes.
Heat-stressed animals will have increased body temperatures, increased
water consumption, decreased feed consumption and decreased weight
gains. These changes may be subtle and difficult to recognize or
impractical to measure. Fortunately, there are many signs of heat stress
that are easy to recognize. The most obvious are cattle congregating in
shady areas or standing in ponds, and decreased grazing activity. You
may also notice cattle panting. According to the USDA's Agricultural
Research Service, more than 90 breaths per minute is an indication of
heat stress, and a respiration rate over 110 indicates a dangerous heat
stress level.
Tools are available to help producers identify conditions that are
potentially dangerous for cattle. The Livestock Weather Hazard Guide
provides guidelines that indicate the potential of heat stress at
different temperatures and relative humidity.
Another way to monitor heat stress conditions in your area is the Heat
Stress Forecast. The USDA has developed a Web site that reports heat
stress forecasts for the central United States. These forecasts provide
a more accurate prediction because they account for wind speed and solar
radiation in addition to temperature and humidity. This Web site can be
found at: www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=17130.
Managing Heat Stress
Provide fresh, clean water to cattle at all times. Water intake
increases during times of heat stress, so make sure that piped water can
refill tanks fast enough to keep up with cattle demand. If ponds are the
only source of water, monitor water quality throughout hot, dry periods.
Be sure that cattle have adequate shade. If shade is limited, heat
stress can be compounded by animals crowding together.
If possible, avoid working and transporting cattle during periods of
heat stress. If cattle must be worked or rotated to a new pasture, do it
as early as possible in the morning.
Heat stress can also affect the reproductive performance of cows and
bulls so plan your breeding season to avoid the hottest months. Keep in
mind that heat stress can impact semen quality for up to eight weeks.
Be prepared by planning now for heat stress. As hot weather approaches,
monitor the Heat Stress Forecast or use your local conditions with the
Livestock Weather Hazard Guide to determine the potential for heat
stress in your cattle. You can find this and past articles on the web
at http://www.mycountrytractor.com/ for your reference. Extension
programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race,
color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M
University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County
Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating serve of all ages regardless
of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or
national origin. ThAgriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating
Thank you,
Tommy Neyland
County Extension Agent
Texas Agrilife Extension Service
P.O. Box 188
Centerville, Texas 75833
903.536.2531 phone
903.536.3804 fax
production and subsequent calf growth, decreased reproductive
performance in cows and bulls, and decreased stocker and feeder
performance. It has been estimated that heat-related events in the
Midwest have cost the cattle industry over $75 million in the past 10
years. As summer approaches, make preparations to reduce the risk of
heat stress in your cattle.
The ideal temperature range for beef cattle is between 41° F and 77° F.
When temperatures exceed this, cattle are at risk of heat stress. Many
environmental factors affect the potential for heat stress, including
relative humidity, wind speed, solar radiation, ground cover, access to
water, diet, shade and nighttime temperatures. In addition, individual
animal characteristics can contribute to heat stress. These include hide
color, breed, health, adaptation, hair coat length and disposition. When
a combination of these factors and ambient temperature cause an animal's
heat load to exceed its ability to dissipate that heat, heat stress
occurs.
Identifying Heat Stress
When heat stressed, cattle exhibit many physical and behavioral changes.
Heat-stressed animals will have increased body temperatures, increased
water consumption, decreased feed consumption and decreased weight
gains. These changes may be subtle and difficult to recognize or
impractical to measure. Fortunately, there are many signs of heat stress
that are easy to recognize. The most obvious are cattle congregating in
shady areas or standing in ponds, and decreased grazing activity. You
may also notice cattle panting. According to the USDA's Agricultural
Research Service, more than 90 breaths per minute is an indication of
heat stress, and a respiration rate over 110 indicates a dangerous heat
stress level.
Tools are available to help producers identify conditions that are
potentially dangerous for cattle. The Livestock Weather Hazard Guide
provides guidelines that indicate the potential of heat stress at
different temperatures and relative humidity.
Another way to monitor heat stress conditions in your area is the Heat
Stress Forecast. The USDA has developed a Web site that reports heat
stress forecasts for the central United States. These forecasts provide
a more accurate prediction because they account for wind speed and solar
radiation in addition to temperature and humidity. This Web site can be
found at: www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=17130.
Managing Heat Stress
Provide fresh, clean water to cattle at all times. Water intake
increases during times of heat stress, so make sure that piped water can
refill tanks fast enough to keep up with cattle demand. If ponds are the
only source of water, monitor water quality throughout hot, dry periods.
Be sure that cattle have adequate shade. If shade is limited, heat
stress can be compounded by animals crowding together.
If possible, avoid working and transporting cattle during periods of
heat stress. If cattle must be worked or rotated to a new pasture, do it
as early as possible in the morning.
Heat stress can also affect the reproductive performance of cows and
bulls so plan your breeding season to avoid the hottest months. Keep in
mind that heat stress can impact semen quality for up to eight weeks.
Be prepared by planning now for heat stress. As hot weather approaches,
monitor the Heat Stress Forecast or use your local conditions with the
Livestock Weather Hazard Guide to determine the potential for heat
stress in your cattle. You can find this and past articles on the web
at http://www.mycountrytractor.com/ for your reference. Extension
programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race,
color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M
University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County
Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating serve of all ages regardless
of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or
national origin. ThAgriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating
Thank you,
Tommy Neyland
County Extension Agent
Texas Agrilife Extension Service
P.O. Box 188
Centerville, Texas 75833
903.536.2531 phone
903.536.3804 fax
Chute "N" The Bull 6-15-10
At a workshop in April 2009, we discussed low-stress cattle handling techniques with beginning cattle producers. The review was also helpful to remind experienced cattlemen of the techniques we need to employ when handling cattle.
Ag Research Associate Kent Shankles demonstrates proper cattle sorting technique at the Noble Foundation's Oswalt Road Ranch. Proper positioning and use of pressure reduces stress while handling cattle.
A common misconception is that "low-stress" must mean "no pressure." That is absolutely false. Cattle, like all other animals, respond to appropriate application and release of pressure. There are times when significant pressure must be applied to get the animals to move how and when you need. Pressure, used appropriately, does not cause long-term, harmful stress.
A good cattle handler understands two key principals: flight zone (the "bubble" around an animal that, if invaded by a handler, will cause the animal to move away) and point of balance (the point, usually around the front shoulder, at which pressure in front of that point will cause the animal to stop or back up, and vice versa). When a stockman is at the edge of the flight zone and properly balanced, only slight movements are needed to control the animals in a low-stress manner. To make cattle speed up, walk against their direction of travel; to make them slow down, walk with them. As you pass the point of balance, notice how each animal responds to your movement and position.
A good stockman will stay quiet when working cattle. If cattle aren't doing what you want, it is not because they can't hear or see you. It is because you are in the wrong place doing the wrong thing. Don't yell and scream, and don't make wild movements. Move calmly, purposefully and in straight lines. Cattle will be able to predict your movements and respond appropriately to them. If you move like a predator (hesitating, followed by sudden movements and in curves around them), the cattle will treat you like a predator.
A good stockman is patient. The cattle don't care that you are late for dinner. Keep doing the right things until the cattle respond correctly. After you have mastered the art of stockmanship, you can usually work cattle quickly when you need to. But realize that if you make cattle do something before they are ready to do it, then it is no longer low-stress handling.
Train cattle how to behave every time you are with them. Go to the pen or pasture, and use these techniques to just move them around, teaching them to respond. If possible, move cattle through your corrals on their way to feed or to another pasture. Always make your cattle walk past you, single file, out of a gate. Don't let them run wildly, or they will hurt themselves and you, tear up your gates and be stressed when they finally stop.
When moving cattle from a pasture, ignore the few cattle that quit the herd. If you drive the main herd in a low-stress manner, and don't chase the few on the edge, they will usually come back to the herd of their own volition.
Work to incorporate these habits, and they will make you a better stockman. And don't say, "I'll try." "Try" is an excuse to fail. You can find this and past articles on the web at www.mycountrytractor.blogspot.com for your reference. Extension programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating .
Thank you,
Tommy Neyland
County Extension Agent
Texas Agrilife Extension Service
P.O. Box 188
Centerville, Texas 75833
903.536.2531 phone
903.536.3804 fax
Ag Research Associate Kent Shankles demonstrates proper cattle sorting technique at the Noble Foundation's Oswalt Road Ranch. Proper positioning and use of pressure reduces stress while handling cattle.
A common misconception is that "low-stress" must mean "no pressure." That is absolutely false. Cattle, like all other animals, respond to appropriate application and release of pressure. There are times when significant pressure must be applied to get the animals to move how and when you need. Pressure, used appropriately, does not cause long-term, harmful stress.
A good cattle handler understands two key principals: flight zone (the "bubble" around an animal that, if invaded by a handler, will cause the animal to move away) and point of balance (the point, usually around the front shoulder, at which pressure in front of that point will cause the animal to stop or back up, and vice versa). When a stockman is at the edge of the flight zone and properly balanced, only slight movements are needed to control the animals in a low-stress manner. To make cattle speed up, walk against their direction of travel; to make them slow down, walk with them. As you pass the point of balance, notice how each animal responds to your movement and position.
A good stockman will stay quiet when working cattle. If cattle aren't doing what you want, it is not because they can't hear or see you. It is because you are in the wrong place doing the wrong thing. Don't yell and scream, and don't make wild movements. Move calmly, purposefully and in straight lines. Cattle will be able to predict your movements and respond appropriately to them. If you move like a predator (hesitating, followed by sudden movements and in curves around them), the cattle will treat you like a predator.
A good stockman is patient. The cattle don't care that you are late for dinner. Keep doing the right things until the cattle respond correctly. After you have mastered the art of stockmanship, you can usually work cattle quickly when you need to. But realize that if you make cattle do something before they are ready to do it, then it is no longer low-stress handling.
Train cattle how to behave every time you are with them. Go to the pen or pasture, and use these techniques to just move them around, teaching them to respond. If possible, move cattle through your corrals on their way to feed or to another pasture. Always make your cattle walk past you, single file, out of a gate. Don't let them run wildly, or they will hurt themselves and you, tear up your gates and be stressed when they finally stop.
When moving cattle from a pasture, ignore the few cattle that quit the herd. If you drive the main herd in a low-stress manner, and don't chase the few on the edge, they will usually come back to the herd of their own volition.
Work to incorporate these habits, and they will make you a better stockman. And don't say, "I'll try." "Try" is an excuse to fail. You can find this and past articles on the web at www.mycountrytractor.blogspot.com for your reference. Extension programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating .
Thank you,
Tommy Neyland
County Extension Agent
Texas Agrilife Extension Service
P.O. Box 188
Centerville, Texas 75833
903.536.2531 phone
903.536.3804 fax
Friday, June 11, 2010
Chute N The Bull 6-10-10
Due to its high yield potential and adaptability to marginal lands, switchgrass (Panacum virgatum) has received considerable press for its potential to contribute to the growing cellulosic ethanol industry. Many producers have considered entering this new industry, but the limited information on nutrient management of switchgrass needs to be addressed. Therefore, The Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation established a multisite (Frederick and Burneyville, Okla.) experiment to evaluate the effects of harvest systems and nitrogen application rates on biomass production.
Following the establishment of test sites in 2008, forage was harvested after seed set (October), after frost (December) or twice per year after boot stage (July) and frost. In addition, nitrogen was applied at six rates (0, 40, 80, 120, 160 and 200 pounds of nitrogen per acre). As expected, application of 160 pounds of nitrogen per acre significantly increased forage yields for all three harvest periods. In fact, compared to application of no nitrogen, switchgrass biomass increased by 49 percent when harvested after seed set, by 27 percent when harvested after frost and by 87 percent in the two harvest system. We also found that application of nitrogen beyond 160 pounds per acre did not significantly increase forage yields. Our research showed that for each pound of nitrogen applied, per acre yield increased by 13 pounds for after seed set harvest, 15 pounds for after frost harvest and 35 pounds for twice per year harvest.
Nutrient concentrations and removal rates varied significantly by harvest system. Quantifying this is important because of the soil nutrient mining associated with switchgrass for bioenergy production. Due to high amounts of nitrogen being available to the plant, application of 160 pounds nitrogen per acre increased the forage nitrogen concentration by 68 percent compared to unfertilized switchgrass. In addition, when compared to application of no nitrogen, application of 160 pounds nitrogen per acre increased nitrogen uptake by approximately 170 percent for after seed set harvest, 122 percent for after frost harvest and 147 percent for twice per year harvest.
Phosphorus and potassium concentration and removal rates at the boot stage harvest are much greater than from post-frost harvests. When compared to adding no nitrogen, application of 160 pounds nitrogen per acre increased phosphorus uptake by approximately 55 percent for after seed set harvest, 71 percent for after frost harvest and 50 percent for twice per year harvest. When switchgrass was harvested after seed set, after frost and twice per year, nitrogen fertilization at a rate of 160 pounds per acre increased potassium uptake by 49 percent, 31 percent and 110 percent, respectively, compared to no nitrogen application.
Nutrient removal (soil mining) was generally twice as high when switchgrass was harvested twice a year. Precipitation strongly affected biomass yields across the two years of experiments. When late summer precipitation is available, it supports regrowth, resulting in greater forage yields. However, harvesting twice per year increases nutrient removal and potentially increases fertilization requirements and costs.
As in any hay production enterprise, baling and removal of forage from the land results in depleting soils of critical nutrients. However, nutrients that are mined from the soil can be recycled back if the harvested hay is fed to livestock on the same site. However, with switchgrass production for bioenergy systems, the livestock recycling is absent. Therefore, it is critical to time harvest of biomass to minimize effects on soil nutrient concentrations or to apply nutrients that were removed from the soil. In order to have a sustainable switchgrass production system, harvest at the appropriate time accompanied by regular soil tests and application of necessary nutrients are needed. You can find this and past articles on the web at http://www.mycountrytractor.com/ for your reference. Extension programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating
Thank you,
Tommy Neyland
County Extension Agent
Texas Agrilife Extension Service
P.O. Box 188
Centerville, Texas 75833
903.536.2531 phone
903.536.3804 fax
Following the establishment of test sites in 2008, forage was harvested after seed set (October), after frost (December) or twice per year after boot stage (July) and frost. In addition, nitrogen was applied at six rates (0, 40, 80, 120, 160 and 200 pounds of nitrogen per acre). As expected, application of 160 pounds of nitrogen per acre significantly increased forage yields for all three harvest periods. In fact, compared to application of no nitrogen, switchgrass biomass increased by 49 percent when harvested after seed set, by 27 percent when harvested after frost and by 87 percent in the two harvest system. We also found that application of nitrogen beyond 160 pounds per acre did not significantly increase forage yields. Our research showed that for each pound of nitrogen applied, per acre yield increased by 13 pounds for after seed set harvest, 15 pounds for after frost harvest and 35 pounds for twice per year harvest.
Nutrient concentrations and removal rates varied significantly by harvest system. Quantifying this is important because of the soil nutrient mining associated with switchgrass for bioenergy production. Due to high amounts of nitrogen being available to the plant, application of 160 pounds nitrogen per acre increased the forage nitrogen concentration by 68 percent compared to unfertilized switchgrass. In addition, when compared to application of no nitrogen, application of 160 pounds nitrogen per acre increased nitrogen uptake by approximately 170 percent for after seed set harvest, 122 percent for after frost harvest and 147 percent for twice per year harvest.
Phosphorus and potassium concentration and removal rates at the boot stage harvest are much greater than from post-frost harvests. When compared to adding no nitrogen, application of 160 pounds nitrogen per acre increased phosphorus uptake by approximately 55 percent for after seed set harvest, 71 percent for after frost harvest and 50 percent for twice per year harvest. When switchgrass was harvested after seed set, after frost and twice per year, nitrogen fertilization at a rate of 160 pounds per acre increased potassium uptake by 49 percent, 31 percent and 110 percent, respectively, compared to no nitrogen application.
Nutrient removal (soil mining) was generally twice as high when switchgrass was harvested twice a year. Precipitation strongly affected biomass yields across the two years of experiments. When late summer precipitation is available, it supports regrowth, resulting in greater forage yields. However, harvesting twice per year increases nutrient removal and potentially increases fertilization requirements and costs.
As in any hay production enterprise, baling and removal of forage from the land results in depleting soils of critical nutrients. However, nutrients that are mined from the soil can be recycled back if the harvested hay is fed to livestock on the same site. However, with switchgrass production for bioenergy systems, the livestock recycling is absent. Therefore, it is critical to time harvest of biomass to minimize effects on soil nutrient concentrations or to apply nutrients that were removed from the soil. In order to have a sustainable switchgrass production system, harvest at the appropriate time accompanied by regular soil tests and application of necessary nutrients are needed. You can find this and past articles on the web at http://www.mycountrytractor.com/ for your reference. Extension programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating
Thank you,
Tommy Neyland
County Extension Agent
Texas Agrilife Extension Service
P.O. Box 188
Centerville, Texas 75833
903.536.2531 phone
903.536.3804 fax
Chute N The Bull 6-2-10
Everyone has heard the expression "good fences make good neighbors." This has never been truer than in today's world. Many counties have closed range laws, meaning that if livestock gets out of a pasture and causes damage such as an automobile accident, the owner of the livestock is liable. As more people move to the country from the city, we have seen a need for better understanding of proper fencing for various livestock species.
Several common types of fences are five to six strands of barbed wire fence, electric fence, woven wire fence (field fence), or pipe and cable. All of these have advantages and disadvantages.
Barbed wire is the typical material used to fence cattle. Five to six strands of barbed wire are adequate to keep cattle restrained for interior or exterior fences. More strands (eight to 10) can be used at closer intervals to keep goats in. Barbed wire fences are fast and economical to install. A disadvantage is that horse owners typically do not like barbed wire fences for fear of the animal being entangled and injured. Consideration should be given to this if there is a plan to sell the property in the future.
Electric fence is a very economical method of dividing pastures into smaller areas to improve rotational grazing. Electric fence can be installed with minimal equipment and relatively quickly. Another advantage is that it can be used as either a temporary or permanent fence. It can be installed as a temporary fence to determine future locations of permanent fences. Electric fences come in a variety of materials from high tensile wire, woven wire, electric braided rope or ribbons. A disadvantage is that electric fences are not usually recommended for use as perimeter fences. An important consideration is to make sure that you use a fence charger that has the highest number of joules available. Chargers are available that are powered by 110 volts, 12 volt battery or solar energy. Additionally, not installing enough grounding rods will result in less than satisfactory performance. Alternate a "hot" wire and ground wire on the fence so if an animal puts its head through, it will touch both wires at the same time, ensuring an unpleasant zap.
Woven wire fences are also called field fences. They are more expensive and harder to install than electric or barbed wire fences. Several variations are available including horse, no-climb, goat, hog or cattle fences. The differences between the variations are due to the spacing of the horizontal strands or the vertical strands (called stays). The spacing between the stays or vertical strands of wire can vary from 2 to 10 inches apart. The horizontal strands can be equally spaced, as small as 4 inches, or increase in size as you go from the bottom to the top of the fence. It is recommended to use one to two strands of barbed wire or electric fence at the top of the woven fence to deter animals from trying to reach over the top of the fence and pushing it down.
Pipe and cable fences are the most expensive and difficult to install, but are probably the strongest and most permanent. These fences typically require the services of a welder and take the greatest amount of time to install. Pipe fences are preferred in crowding situations, such as in corrals or working pens. Horse enthusiasts and professionals suggest that pipe fences are easier for horses to see and, thus, prevent injury. A common method of fencing in equine operations is to use pipe for the post and top-line with woven horse wire in the middle. Many fence builders will use a single strand of cable at the bottom of the woven wire to add strength to the fence.
No matter what type of fence you choose, it should be tall enough to discourage and prevent the animals from trying to jump over it. Remember that the grass is always greener on the other side, and livestock have 24 hours in a day to try to figure out a way to get out. It is our job to keep them in. You can find this and past articles on the web at www.mycountrytractor.com for your reference. Extension programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating.
Thank you,
Tommy Neyland
County Extension Agent
Texas Agrilife Extension Service
P.O. Box 188
Centerville, Texas 75833
903.536.2531 phone
903.536.3804 fax
Several common types of fences are five to six strands of barbed wire fence, electric fence, woven wire fence (field fence), or pipe and cable. All of these have advantages and disadvantages.
Barbed wire is the typical material used to fence cattle. Five to six strands of barbed wire are adequate to keep cattle restrained for interior or exterior fences. More strands (eight to 10) can be used at closer intervals to keep goats in. Barbed wire fences are fast and economical to install. A disadvantage is that horse owners typically do not like barbed wire fences for fear of the animal being entangled and injured. Consideration should be given to this if there is a plan to sell the property in the future.
Electric fence is a very economical method of dividing pastures into smaller areas to improve rotational grazing. Electric fence can be installed with minimal equipment and relatively quickly. Another advantage is that it can be used as either a temporary or permanent fence. It can be installed as a temporary fence to determine future locations of permanent fences. Electric fences come in a variety of materials from high tensile wire, woven wire, electric braided rope or ribbons. A disadvantage is that electric fences are not usually recommended for use as perimeter fences. An important consideration is to make sure that you use a fence charger that has the highest number of joules available. Chargers are available that are powered by 110 volts, 12 volt battery or solar energy. Additionally, not installing enough grounding rods will result in less than satisfactory performance. Alternate a "hot" wire and ground wire on the fence so if an animal puts its head through, it will touch both wires at the same time, ensuring an unpleasant zap.
Woven wire fences are also called field fences. They are more expensive and harder to install than electric or barbed wire fences. Several variations are available including horse, no-climb, goat, hog or cattle fences. The differences between the variations are due to the spacing of the horizontal strands or the vertical strands (called stays). The spacing between the stays or vertical strands of wire can vary from 2 to 10 inches apart. The horizontal strands can be equally spaced, as small as 4 inches, or increase in size as you go from the bottom to the top of the fence. It is recommended to use one to two strands of barbed wire or electric fence at the top of the woven fence to deter animals from trying to reach over the top of the fence and pushing it down.
Pipe and cable fences are the most expensive and difficult to install, but are probably the strongest and most permanent. These fences typically require the services of a welder and take the greatest amount of time to install. Pipe fences are preferred in crowding situations, such as in corrals or working pens. Horse enthusiasts and professionals suggest that pipe fences are easier for horses to see and, thus, prevent injury. A common method of fencing in equine operations is to use pipe for the post and top-line with woven horse wire in the middle. Many fence builders will use a single strand of cable at the bottom of the woven wire to add strength to the fence.
No matter what type of fence you choose, it should be tall enough to discourage and prevent the animals from trying to jump over it. Remember that the grass is always greener on the other side, and livestock have 24 hours in a day to try to figure out a way to get out. It is our job to keep them in. You can find this and past articles on the web at www.mycountrytractor.com for your reference. Extension programs serve of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating.
Thank you,
Tommy Neyland
County Extension Agent
Texas Agrilife Extension Service
P.O. Box 188
Centerville, Texas 75833
903.536.2531 phone
903.536.3804 fax
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